Ubuntu-Pakistan [LinuxPakistan] help needed with usb flash (ubuntu)
Khawar Nehal
atrc.support at gmail.com
Sun Sep 10 22:11:47 BST 2006
Com1 = ttyS0 and com2 = ttyS1
for your serial ports
For the USB read this
USB Flash Memory HOWTO Niko Sauer Unit of Advanced Study
University of Pretoria, South Africa
< nikos at friedrichs.up.ac.za <%20nikos at friedrichs.up.ac.za>>
*Revision History*Revision 0.062004-03-10Revised by: nsAdded section on
Linux-2.6.Revision 0.052003-12-26Revised by: ejhTechnical review.Revision
0.042003-12-11Revised by: ns
Revision 0.032003-12-02Revised by: ejhTechnical review.Revision 0.02
2003-10-30Revised by: nsChanged 2003-11-20
This document describes procedures for installing USB Flash Memory devices
and the way of formatting them for various file systems such as vfat (the
way they usually come) and ext2 (the way they fit in better with Linux). It
is also described how to partition the device in two sections with different
file types.
------------------------------
*Table of Contents*1.
Purpose<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#purpose>2.
Physical devices<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#physical>3.
Buying a memory
stick<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#buying>4.
Reading <http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#reading>5.
Hardware and kernel<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#hardware>
5.1. Setup <http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#setup>
5.2. Kernel options<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#kernel>
5.3. Notes <http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#notes>6.
Some basic concepts<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#basics>
6.1. The /proc filesystem<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#proc>
6.2. SCSI devices<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#scsidev>
6.3. The USB device
filesystem<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#usbfs>
6.4. The ext2 filesystem<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#ext2fs>
6.5. The vfat filesystem<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#vfatfs>
6.6. Explanation of command
options<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#options>7.
Basic verifications<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#verifications>
7.1. A quick check<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#quick>
7.2. Probing the /proc
filesystem<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#proc-probe>
7.3. Mounting the USB
filesystem<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#mounting>
7.4. Tests -- vfat<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#tests>8.
Setting up an Ext2
filesystem<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#ext2>
8.1. Partitioning<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#partition>
8.2. Making an ext2
device<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#making-ext2>
8.3. Tests -- ext2<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#tests4>9.
Setting up a dual
partition<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#mixed>
9.1. Partitioning<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#double-partition>
9.2. Making a dual ext2/vfat
system<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#both>
9.3. Tests -- ext2 and
vfat<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#mixed-tests>
9.4. Configuring Linux for the dual
partition<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#config-linux>10.
Making the memory stick accessible to
users<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#users>11.
Maintenance<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#maintain>
11.1. Filesystem
inspection<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#fs-inspect>
11.2. And then?<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#and-then>12.
The Linux-2.6 kernel<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#linux-2.6>
12.1. What is new?<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#What-is-new>
12.2. Kernel options<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#kernel-options>
12.3. Notes<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#notes-2.6>
12.4. Hotplugging and
Naming<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#hotplug>13.
Formalities<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#formal>
13.1. Copyright
Information<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#copyright>
13.2. Disclaimer<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#disclaimer>
13.3. Credits<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#credits>
13.4. Feedback<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#feedback>
1. Purpose
The purpose of this document is to describe procedures for implementing USB
flash memory devices (memory sticks) on Linux. This entails the following:
-
making over-the-counter devices, pre-formatted for the MS Windows
system, work on Linux;
-
formatting the device in the ext2 filesystem on a single partition and
making it work. This is intended for situations where the device will be
used exclusively on Linux machines;
-
formatting the device on a dual partition in the ext2 and vfat
filesystems and making it work. The purpose of this is for situations where
Linux + Linux and Linux + Windows are possible;
-
making the device more user friendly;
-
maintaining the filesystem of the device;
-
using additional features of Linux-2.6.x.
The procedures described in this document should work on any USB memory
stick device which can be operated as a read-write device. Read-only devices
do not fall in this category. The procedures will not work if the write
facility of the device is disabled (i.e. if the write protect switch is on).
The procedures described for formatting and maintenance in particular
filesystems may (in principle) be adapted for other filesystems such as ext3
and reiserfs. These have not been tried and tested. Neither has any
attention been paid to adaptation of the procedures to other related
operating systems.
[image: Warning]
It may be dangerous to re-format the flash memory intended for a digital
camera. The camera may then be unable to understand it. Use the camera's
built-in menu system to do this reformatting for you.
------------------------------
2. Physical devices
Flash memory devices come mainly in the form of small, portable devices
often referred to as *memory sticks* or *keychains*, and as part of digital
cameras. They are *non-volatile devices* which operate on the principle that
electric charges are used to represent data in binary format. These charges
can remain unchanged almost indefinitely, but changes (such as writing to
the device) limit the life span of the device (100000 writes of 8MB each).
Memory sticks plug directly into a USB-port at the back of your computer.
The power it needs is supplied by the USB-port. It is sometimes convenient
to use a USB-extension cable to bring the device within easy reach.
Memory sticks usually have *write protect switches* which should be turned
off if you want to use it as read-write device. If the switch is in
the "on"position, the device is
*read-only*. The devices are usually equipped with a led (light emitting
diode), which indicates that the device is operational. The led also
flickers while data is being transferred to or from the device.
Digital cameras use flash memory for image storage. These are powered by the
camera and connected to the computer's USB-port via an electronic interface.
To be able to connect to the computer, the camera's power must be turned on
for the duration of the interfacing, and should only be turned off after the
device had been unmounted from the computer. It is important to remember
that the device takes power from the camera's battery. The operation should
therefore be terminated as soon as possible.
------------------------------
3. Buying a memory stick
Important considerations when buying a memory stick are the following:
*The size of the memory*
This will depend on whatever use you have in mind. 128MB seems to be a
popular choice.
*Is it known to work on Linux?*
The established brands have web sites in which this may be stated
explicitly. Alternatively, ask the supplier. But beware: the sales person
may not know what you are talking about. The instruction leaflet may also
mention something like: Works on Linux-2.4, or may have a picture of the
Linux penguin. If these inquiries fail, it may be wise not to buy.
*Extension cable and keychain*
Memory sticks usually are packaged with an extension cable (Section
2<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#physical>)
and a keychain. The latter provides a safe and with-it way of transporting
the device. Make sure that these are included. You may need an additional
extension cable, depending on circumstances. Laptop and notebook computers
usually don't need them.
*File system*
Over-the-counter memory sticks are usually formatted in vfat (msdos), and
this will work in Linux, but you will not have the strength and versatility
of the standard ext2 (or other) file system. This is not a problem. It can
be endowed with other file systems as will be described later in this
document.
*Cost*
Prices of memory sticks of a given size may vary considerably. It is a good
idea to find out what that range is. The internet is excellent for the
purpose.
------------------------------
4. Reading
Users of this document might want to acquaint themselves with the following:
[1] <http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#FTN.AEN104>
- Manual pages of the following tools: mount, umount, fdisk, mke2fs,
mkdosfs, dumpe2fs> and fsck.ext2.
- Linux documentation project <http://www.tldp.org/>
- USB-Digital Camera HOWTO
<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/USB-Digital-Camera-HOWTO>*
- The Linux Partition HOWTO <http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/Partition>*
- The Linux 2.4 SCSI subsystem HOWTO
<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/The%20Linux%20SCSI-2.4-HOWTO>
- The Linux Kernel HOWTO <http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/Kernel-HOWTO>
- The Linux USB subsystem
<http://www.linux-usb.org/USB-guide/book1.html>*
- Linux filesystem hierarchy <http://www.tldp.org/guides.html>
- The Linux Kernel <http://www.tldp.org/guides.html>
- Linux Kernel 2.4.xx/Documentation (should be in
/usr/src/linux/Documentation )
------------------------------
5. Hardware and kernel5.1. Setup
This is a description of the salient features of the setup used to develop
the procedures described below. All the procedures have been tried and
tested, also for Linux-2.6. The screen-like displays are precise copies of
what appeared on my screen.
- Hardware: Intel (R) Celeron (TM) 1100 MHz
- Distribution: RedHat Linux 7.0 (extensively modified)
- Kernel: Linux-2.4.20 (from www.kernel.org). See also Section
12<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#linux-2.6>for
Linux-2.6.x.
- Tools: util-linux-2.11z (mount, umount, fdisk); e2fsprogs-1.32 (
mke2fs, dumpe2fs, fsck.ext2); mkdosfs-2.2
------------------------------
5.2. Kernel options
It is uncertain if USB-support is sufficient in kernels earlier than 2.4.xx.
The following support, relevant to this document, was compiled into the
kernel. A modular approach may also be followed.
------------------------------
5.2.1. SCSI support
- SCSI support (CONFIG_SCSI scsi_mod.o)
- SCSI disk support (CONFIG_BLK_DEV_SD sd_mod.o)
------------------------------
5.2.2. File systems
- DOS FAT fs support (CONFIG_FAT_FS fat.o)
- MSDOS fs support (CONFIG_MSDOS_FS msdos.o)
- VFAT (Windows 95) fs support (CONFIG_VFAT_FS vfat.o)
- /proc filesystem (CONFIG_PROC_FS)
- Second extended fs support (ext2fs) (CONFIG_EXT2_FS ext2.o)
------------------------------
5.2.3. USB support
- Support for USB (CONFIG_USB usbcore.o)
- Preliminary USB device filesystem (CONFIG_USB_DEVICEFS)
- USB Mass Storage support (CONFIG_USB_STORAGE usb-storage.o)
------------------------------
5.3. Notes
In the lists above the entities in uppercase refer to the variable names to
be found in the .config file in the upper level directory of the kernel
source (/usr/src/linux/). The entities xxx.o refer to the modules created
when a modular approach is followed. When there is no reference to a module,
the option can only be hard-compiled into the kernel.
Different kernel versions may have different indications of options when,
for example, *make menuconfig* or * make xconfig* are run. Variables such as
CONFIG_USB, which can be gleaned from the various * help* options, may be a
more reliable indication.
Very recent Linux distributions such as *RedHat* and *SuSE* probably have
the appropriate kernel options compiled in.
Under USB-support, options for a number of digital cameras are available.
Please consult the relevant texts as set out in Section
4<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#reading>if
you consider (re)compiling your kernel.
------------------------------
6. Some basic concepts
In this section we discuss in a very brief manner, some basic Linux concepts
which should contribute to an understanding of the procedures described
below.
------------------------------
6.1. The /proc filesystem
The /proc filesystem serves as a window through which we can see the
workings of a Linux setup. The objects of most interest for this document
are the directories/proc/bus/usb/ and /proc/scsi/. These will be used to
verify that the kernel had been set up properly for our purpose
(Section 7.2<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#proc-probe>).
------------------------------
6.2. SCSI devices
Your memory stick will be considered as a USB mass storage device posing as
a removable SCSI disk (sd). SCSI disk devices are mapped to the
/dev(devices) directory under
/dev/sda , /dev/sdb , ... When different disk devices are present, they will
be mapped to /dev/sda, /dev/sdb, etc. If, for example, a memory stick and a
digital camera are plugged in, the one would be mapped to /dev/sda and the
other to /dev/sdb. Tests have indicated that the first device to be detected
is mapped to sda and represented in the directory /proc/scsi/usb-storage-0.
The second will be mapped to sdb and represented in /proc/scsi/usb-storage-0.
What will happen when both devices are present at boot-up, is not known. An
overview of the partitions relevant to this document, the file
/proc/partitions may be consulted. Look for entries like sda, sda1, sdb.
Under the Linux-2.6 series of kernels this problem may be very neatly
resolved (Section
12<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#linux-2.6>).
In the descriptions further on, it will be assumed that only one memory
stick is present, and therefore mapped to /dev/sda.
In most distributions these points exist in abundance. You should check that
this is the case in your setup (*ls /dev/sda**. If there are none you can
create them by doing (as root, indicated by the hash).
# *mknod /dev/sda b 8 0*
# *mknod /dev/sda1 b 8 1*
# *mknod /dev/sda2 b 8 2*
etc, up to /dev/sda15 if necessary. The device as a whole is mapped to
/dev/sda, while /dev/sdax (x = 1 ... 15) represent the various partitions of
the device. We shall describe, later on, how to create different partitions
for different file systems (see Section
8<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#ext2>and
Section
9 <http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#mixed> ). If
you intend to use your memory stick with a single partition (filesystem),
/dev/sda1 is sufficient.
------------------------------
6.3. The USB device filesystem
This dynamically generated filesystem should be mounted at /proc/bus/usb/.
It is therefore essential that this mount point exists. Once it is mounted,
there should be more to be seen in /proc/bus/usb/ and in /proc/scsi/ (Section
7.3 <http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#mounting>).
To find out which USB devices are present, read the file
/proc/bus/usb/devices (* less /proc/bus/usb/devices*). It takes a small
effort to interpret the writing on the screen, but it is not difficult. A
memory stick is indicated by *Mass Storage Device*.
------------------------------
6.4. The ext2 filesystem
The ext2 (second extended) filesystem still is the most prevalent in Linux
setups. It is most versatile and sophisticated, carrying with it permissions
(read-write-execute, who is permitted to do what), ownership (user, group,
others), a timestamp (when last modified), etc. Moreover, tools for the
proper maintenance of a device endowed with ext2, exist (Section
11<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#maintain>).
If a flash memory device is to be used exclusively within Linux setups, it
is therefore desirable to format it in ext2 (see Section
8<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#ext2>).
------------------------------
6.5. The vfat filesystem
Enabling vfat in the kernel makes it possible to mount filesystems created
under Dos/Windows to be mounted in a Linux system. Most memory sticks are
formatted for direct use on Windows and should therefore be considered as
vfat-formatted. The vfat filesystem is less sophisticated than ext2 and will
therefore be more economic as far as memory space is concerned. It does not
carry permissions in the same way as ext2 with the result that an ext2-file
saved in vfat will re-appear with its permissions changed. Nonetheless, if a
memory stick is to be used for the purpose of carrying data between Linux
and Windows machines, it is best to keep it in the vfat format. A compromise
is to partition the memory stick in two parts: one in vfat and the other in
ext2. At least the Linux machine should be able to handle both. This is
described in Section
9<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#mixed>
------------------------------
6.6. Explanation of command options
Here is a short list of command options that occur in this document:
- *mount -t ext2 /dev/sda1 /mnt/memstick* Mount in filetype ext2,
device sda1 at mountpoint /mnt/memstick
- *ls -l* Make a complete list (modes, ownerships, etc.)
- *mkdosfs -F 32 /dev/sda1* Create an ms-dos filesystem, FAT-size 32,
on the partition /dev/sda1
- *ln -s /dev/sda1 /dev/flash* link, symbolically, the existing
/dev/sda1 to the symbolic /dev/flash
- *mkdir -m 777 /mnt/memstick/superdir* create a new directory with
mode rwx for user, group and others
- *dumpe2fs -h /dev/sda1* Show the header of the ext2 partition
/dev/sda1
------------------------------
7. Basic verifications[image: Important]
In order to make sure that the device you look at and write on is the one
intended, it is best to remove similar devices from the USB-bus before
starting these procedures.
------------------------------
7.1. A quick check
It is possible that your system is already set up for handling a USB-flash
memory device. To check this, simply issue the command $ *mount* from an
X-terminal. If something like
none on /proc/bus/usb type usbfs (rw)
appears among the output, you are ready to go to Section
7.4<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#tests>and
proceed from there. It may be virtuous, however, to glance through the
intervening sections. If the test is unsuccessful, all is not lost. Please
read on.
------------------------------
7.2. Probing the /proc filesystem
A few things in the /proc directory can be checked so see if the kernel
options have been properly included or the appropriate modules properly
inserted. As a first check, see if the directory /proc/bus/usb exists. If it
does, your kernel supports the USB-subsystem correctly. If this is not the
case the kernel has to be re-compiled with appropriate USB support (see Section
5.2.3 <http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#usb>) or
the kernel has to be updated. Next, check if the directory
/proc/scsiexists. If it does, you're well-away. If it doesn't, SCSI
support has not
been compiled into your kernel (see Section
5.2.1<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#scsi>).
In /proc there should be provision for a mount point for the USB filesystem.
That point is /proc/bus/usb. If it exists, the kernel is correctly set up.
------------------------------
7.3. Mounting the USB filesystem
If the verifications of the previous sections were positive, the next step
is to mount the USB filesystem. This is issued from root as follows:
# *mount -t usbfs none /proc/bus/usb *
[image: Note]
In older kernel versions the mount command above may have to be changed by
replacing *usbfs* with *usbdevfs*. In Linux-2.4.20 both forms work.
If there are no complaints, do some more tests. The first is the quick test
(Section 7.1<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#quick>).
A deeper probe would be to issue the command # *ls -l /proc/bus/usb* . This
should give something similar to
dr-xr-xr-x 1 root root 0 Sep 19 14:21 001
dr-xr-xr-x 1 root root 0 Sep 19 14:21 002
-r--r--r-- 1 root root 0 Sep 19 22:30 devices
-r--r--r-- 1 root root 0 Sep 19 22:30 drivers
The path /proc/scsi/usb-storage-0/ should now exist and one of the files at
the end will show this. In my setup the command $
*less/proc/scsi/usb-storage-0/1
* gives
Host scsi1: usb-storage
Vendor: Generic
Product: Mass Storage Device
Serial Number: None
Protocol: Transparent SCSI
Transport: Bulk
GUID: 0ed166800000000000000000
Attached: Yes/No
If the flashdrive is present, the last line will have the entry "Yes". If it
is not plugged in, the entry will be "No".
------------------------------
7.4. Tests -- vfat
You are now ready to find out if the memory stick is working. Let us suppose
that you bought it over the counter. Its instruction leaflet will most
likely tell you how to set it up for Windows. That is an indication that it
is formatted in vfat. Before you try to mount it, create a mount point for
it. Do something like # *mkdir -m 777 /mnt/memstick*. The mounting command
would most likely be
# *mount -t vfat /dev/sda1 /mnt/memstick*
If everything went smoothly, you should be able to see the device: #
*ls/mnt/memstick
*.
Now try some standard things like making a directory on the device and
copying a favourite text file to it:
# *mkdir /mnt/memstick/apollo *
# *cp /home/myname/myfavourite_file /mnt/memstick/apollo/.*
List again (# *ls -l /mnt/memstick* ) and pay attention to the permissions.
Unmount the device (# *umount /dev/sda1* ) and mount it again as above. List
again and check the permissions. Most likely your favourite text file will
now have an x-permission. It became executable. That is normal in the vfat
filesystem. If you are happy with that, unmount the device and skip to Section
10 <http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#users> .
------------------------------
8. Setting up an Ext2 filesystem
The procedures described here will give the entire flash memory device a
single partition endowed with the ext2 filesystem. This will make the device
more suitable for use between Linux machines. Don't do this if the device is
supposed to operate between Linux and Windows machines.
[image: Important]
The device associated with /dev/sda will be re-formatted. Any data present
on it will be destroyed. To make sure that the device you work with is the
one intended, remove similar devices from the USB-bus before starting these
procedures.
------------------------------
8.1. Partitioning
It is assumed that the flash memory is mapped to /dev/sda. In this section
we treat the situation where the whole flash memory device will become
devoted to a single ext2 partition. In the example procedure shown below, a
128MB flash memory was formatted for ext2. That is why figures like 131MB
and 888 cylinders appear. The fdisk tool, which is used, simply reads that
from the device.
All operations are done by root. The single partition will be created on
/dev/sda (please note: not /dev/sda1 ) The procedure is described in a
series of steps with comments. The standard prompt of fdisk is Command (m
for help): and you can, at any stage enter *m* to see the available
commands. If you do that the result would be
Command action
a toggle a bootable flag
b edit bsd disklabel
c toggle the dos compatibility flag
d delete a partition
l list known partition types
m print this menu
n add a new partition
o create a new empty DOS partition table
p print the partition table
q quit without saving changes
s create a new empty Sun disklabel
t change a partition's system id
u change display/entry units
v verify the partition table
w write table to disk and exit
x extra functionality (experts only)
Your memory stick must be plugged in, but not mounted. Take care that write
protect is off.
Here goes:
#* fdisk /dev/sda*
Command (m for help):*d* {enter }
Selected partition 1
Command (m for help):*n* {enter}
Command action
e extended
p primary partition (1-4)
*p* {enter}
Partition number (1-4):*1* {enter}
First cylinder (1-888, default 1): {press enter}
Using default value 1
Last cylinder ... (1-888, default 888): {press enter}
Using default value 888
Now is a good time to verify that all went well by printing out the
partition details and table.
Command (m for help): *p*
Disk /dev/sda: 131 MB, 131072000 bytes
9 heads, 32 sectors/track, 888 cylinders
Units = cylinders of 288 * 512 = 147456 bytes
Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System
/dev/sda1 1 888 127856 83 Linux
Make sure that the partition is not set up as bootable. There should not be
an asterisk under the heading "Boot" in the partition table. Furthermore,
the headings "Id" and "System" should be as they are in the printout shown
above. That indicates that you can format the device in ext2 (next section).
These are the defaults. If they are not, they can be changed by
Command (m for help): *a* [toggle a bootable flag]
Command (m for help): *t* [change a partition's system id]
If (or when) the partition table is correct, you can conclude the procedure
with
Command (m for help): *w* [write table to disk and exit]
That's it!
------------------------------
8.2. Making an ext2 device
Having completed the partition part, we go straight on to "formatting" the
device in ext2. For this we use the tool mke2fs. This is straightforward.
# *mke2fs /dev/sda1*
You might like to watch the led on your memory stick flicker while this is
happening. When it stops, the job is done.
------------------------------
8.3. Tests -- ext2
To see if you were successful, essentially repeat the procedures described
in Section 7.3<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#mounting>and
Section
7.4 <http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#tests> with
two exceptions of detail. In the first place the mount command should be
# *mount -t ext2 /dev/sda1 /mnt/memstick*
The second exception is that the permissions on your favourite text file
should not change anymore.
------------------------------
9. Setting up a dual partition9.1. Partitioning
The procedures described here will partition the flash memory device in two
pieces -- one of the partitions will be formatted in ext2 and the other in
vfat. This may be handy when the device is to be used to transport data
between two (or more) Linux machines (ext2) and between Linux and Windows
machines (vfat)
[image: Important]
The device mapped to /dev/sda will be re-formatted. Any data present on it
will be destroyed. To make sure that the device you work with is the one
intended, remove similar devices from the USB-bus before starting these
procedures.
In this section we describe how to set up a dual partition for the memory
stick: One half of the device will be devoted to the vfat filesystem, and
the other will be ext2. In this way your device will be more versatile, but
also a little shattered. The procedure will be given in somewhat less
detailed than in Section
8.1<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#partition>.
Note that the procedure of the previous section is repeated and that
the
hex code for each file type is explicitly entered (lines following the entry
"t": Win95 = b; Linux = 83). When the partition will only be for Linux, this
is unnecessary -- Linux is the default. Also note that the vfat partition
goes on first -- that is the way Windows would have it.
# *fdisk /dev/sda*
Command (m for help): *d*
Selected partition 1
Command (m for help): *n*
Command action
e extended
p primary partition (1-4)
*p*
Partition number (1-4): *1*
First cylinder (1-888, default 1):
Using default value 1
Last cylinder or +size or +sizeM or +sizeK (1-888,
default 888):*444*
Command (m for help): *t*
Selected partition 1
Hex code (type L to list codes): *b*
Changed system type of partition 1 to b (Win95 FAT32)
Command (m for help): *n*
Command action
e extended
p primary partition (1-4)
*p*
Partition number (1-4): *2*
First cylinder (445-888, default 445):
Using default value 445
Last cylinder or +size or +sizeM or +sizeK (445-888,
default 888):
Using default value 888
Command (m for help): *t*
Partition number (1-4): *2*
Hex code (type L to list codes): *83*
Command (m for help): *p*
Disk /dev/sda: 131 MB, 131072000 bytes
9 heads, 32 sectors/track, 888 cylinders
Units = cylinders of 288 * 512 = 147456 bytes
Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System
/dev/sda1 1 444 63920 b Win95 FAT32
/dev/sda2 445 888 63936 83 Linux
Command (m for help):*w*
[image: Note]
Note that we went on with the second partition before writing.
The choice of splitting the device right in the middle (1--444; 445--888 for
a 128 MB memory stick) is arbitrary. Any other well-conceived splitting
would be fine.
If you had more than one partition to begin with, the "delete" part of the
procedure would have to be repeated.
------------------------------
9.2. Making a dual ext2/vfat system
This step is a repetition of Section
8.2<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#making-ext2>.
The first step makes the dos partition, the second makes the Linux ext2
partition.
# *mkdosfs -F 32 /dev/sda1*
# *mke2fs /dev/sda2*
------------------------------
9.3. Tests -- ext2 and vfat
Simply carry out the tests of Section
7.4<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#tests>and
Section
8.3 <http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#tests4> on
the two devices separately. The mount commands would be
# *mount -t vfat /dev/sda1 /mnt/fatstick *
# *mount -t ext2 /dev/sda2 /mnt/memstick*
to mount both partitions on your device.
------------------------------
9.4. Configuring Linux for the dual partition
The Linux machine you did the partitioning on, will be configured for the
dual partition. Evidently you need to carry the keychain to another Linux
machine. There you will find that it only sees /dev/sda1. This is, perhaps,
a shortcoming of the kernel. The workaround is as follows: On the new host
machine do (keychain plugged in but not mounted)
# *fdisk /dev/sda*
Choose p; check partition table
If satisfied, choose w
# *less /proc/partitions*
Your device with its partitions should be there. Data on your keychain
should be untouched. For a single partition this is not necessary.
------------------------------
10. Making the memory stick accessible to users
What we have described so far, are simply the procedures of setting up the
system and formatting memory sticks. We have to make the mounting of the USB
filesystem more permanent, and we have to make mounting of such a device
easier for non-root users. There are only a few things to be done.
The procedure described below is for the more complex situation of a memory
stick with a dual partition (Section
9<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#mixed>).
If the partition is a single ext2, the procedure should be simplified by
leaving out the line referring to the vfat part and changing sda2 to sda1.
Suppose that the mount points /mnt/memstick and /mnt/fatstick have been
created. You do not have to use those words and they don't even have to be
sub-directories of /mnt
To make remembering easier, create the following symbolic links:
# *ln -s /dev/sda1 /dev/fatflash*
# *ln -s /dev/sda2 /dev/flash*
For smoother and easier mounting add the following lines to /etc/fstab
: (*See NOTE at the end of
* Section 7.3<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#mounting>)
none /proc/bus/usb usbfs defaults 0 0
/dev/flash /mnt/memstick ext2,vfat rw,user,noauto 0 0
/dev/fatflash /mnt/fatstick vfat rw,user,noauto 0 0
The middle line enables mounting either in ext2 or vfat. The last two lines
make it possible for any user to mount the device by the command
$* mount /dev/flash* [for ext2 or vfat]
$* mount /dev/fatflash* [for vfat]
It is possible to mount both partitions simultaneously. See Section
9<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#mixed>.
In the case of an ext2-formatted device it does not seem possible for a user
(other than root) to mount in read-write mode. The solution is to create a
directory on the memory stick owned by the particular user with complete
permissions. Root should do that:
# *mount /dev/flash *
# *mkdir -m 777 /mnt/memstick/superdir *
# *chown charles:charles /mnt/memstick/superdir *
If the device is in the vfat format, this step is unnecessary.
In conclusion, here is a small script I use to mount and unmount my (ext2)
flash drive:
#!/bin/bash
EXCODE="keepit"
green='\033[0;32m'
yellow='\033[0;33m'
## ___________________________
## Function to echo in colours
echo_in_color ()
{
message=$2
message1=$4
color=$1
color1=$3
echo -e -n $color
echo -n $message
echo -e -n $color1 " "
echo -n $message1 " "
tput sgr0
return
}
## ___________________________
clear
mount /dev/flash
echo_in_color $green "Flash drive mounted"
sleep 2
while [ $EXCODE != "flexit" ]
do
clear
echo_in_color $yellow "Enter [flexit] to unmount
and exit:"
read EXCODE
done
umount /dev/flash
exit
I call this from an FVWM menu by * Exec exec xterm -geometry 43x2+1250+0 -e
/home/nikos/bin/flashdrive* which places it on a tiny x-term in one corner
of the screen. The horizontal displacement of 1250 may have to be modified
according to the horizontal resolution of your screen.
------------------------------
11. Maintenance11.1. Filesystem inspection
It is a virtuous habit to inspect your ext2 filesystem on the flash memory
regularly. To do this, the tool dumpe2fs may be used in the following way: #
*dumpe2fs -h /dev/sda1* (you must be root and the device should not be
mounted). The result should be similar to the following:
Filesystem volume name: <none>
Last mounted on: <not available>
Filesystem UUID: c42a6963-5e6a-4cd2-b7d7-c8f09dca6c52
Filesystem magic number: 0xEF53
Filesystem revision #: 1 (dynamic)
Filesystem features: dir_index filetype sparse_super
Default mount options: (none)
Filesystem state: clean
Errors behavior: Continue
Filesystem OS type: Linux
Inode count: 32000
Block count: 127856
Reserved block count: 6392
Free blocks: 116456
Free inodes: 31922
First block: 1
Block size: 1024
Fragment size: 1024
Blocks per group: 8192
Fragments per group: 8192
Inodes per group: 2000
Inode blocks per group: 250
Filesystem created: Sat Sep 20 12:43:00 2003
Last mount time: Tue Oct 28 14:13:03 2003
Last write time: Tue Oct 28 14:28:27 2003
Mount count: 13
Maximum mount count: 35
Last checked: Sat Oct 18 11:28:26 2003
Check interval: 15552000 (6 months)
Next check after: Thu Apr 15 11:28:26 2004
Reserved blocks uid: 0 (user root)
Reserved blocks gid: 0 (group root)
First inode: 11
Inode size: 128
Default directory hash: tea
Directory Hash Seed: 118bee0a-efa5-4771-967e-41a0badd0355
A few important aspects need to be pointed out.
-
When the ext2 filesystem is created, it is by default given maximal
usage before it has to be checked. These can be seen * Maximum mount
count * (35) and * Check interval* (expiry date).
-
The usage so far: * Mount count* and * Last checked* .
-
The existence of corrupted files (bad blocks): * Filesystem state* .
You might get warnings about these things when you mount the device or when
you try the read files from the device.
------------------------------
11.2. And then?
When the usage allocation has been spent, or there is evidence of file
corruption, the thing to do is to run # *fsck.ext2 /dev/sda1* with the
device unmounted. After that, usage parameters will be freshly allocated and
bad blocks will be gone.
[image: Note]
When dealing with the vfat system, the dump does not seem to exist. The
command # *dumpe2fs -f /dev/sda1* for filesystems other than ext2 does not
work for vfat. The tool dosfsck exists (it is still Alpha), and may be risky
to use on a device you have not formatted yourself.
------------------------------
12. The Linux-2.6 kernel12.1. What is new?
Setting up your system as described above for the Linux-2.4.x kernels will
be perfectly good, but with the Linux-2.6.x kernels (x = 0, 1, 2, 3 at the
time of this writing) much more is possible:
-
USB Hotplugging of devices has been improved immensely. This means
that it has become possible to attach and remove a device from the USB port
with full cognisance of the system. If a device is attached, it will show in
the /proc filesystem. Once it is removed, it will not show anymore.
-
The *sysfs* system has been introduced. By using this facility, a very
tight grip on attached devices, their attributes and nodes of attachment is
possible.
-
Utilities for handling hotplugging have been improved or became
available. With the aid of these it is possible to easily distinguish
between attached devices irrespective of the order in which they were
attached.
------------------------------
12.2. Kernel options
Kernel configuration options are very much the same as described in Section
5.2 <http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#kernel>. The
configuration menu (#* make menuconfig*) has been organized differently and
more systematically. Here are the relevant choices:
------------------------------
12.2.1. Bus options
- Support for hot-pluggable devices (CONFIG_HOTPLUG)
------------------------------
12.2.2. Device drivers
- * SCSI device support*
- SCSI device support (CONFIG_SCSI scsi_mod)
- legacy /proc/scsi support (CONFIG_SCSI_PROC_FS)
- SCSI disk support (CONFIG_BLK_DEV_SD sd_mod)
-
- * USB support*
- Support for USB (CONFIG_USB usbcore)
- USB device filesystem (CONFIG_USB_DEVICEFS)
- UHCI HCD support (CONFIG_USB_UHCI_HCD uhci_hcd)
- USB Mass Storage support (CONFIG_USB_STORAGE usb_storage)
------------------------------
12.2.3. File systems
- Second extended (CONFIG_EXT2_FS ext2)
-
- * DOS/FAT/NT filesystems*
- DOS FAT fs support (CONFIG_FAT_FS fat)
- MSDOS fs support (CONFIG_MSDOS_FS msdos)
- VFAT (Windows 95) fs support (CONFIG_VFAT_FS vfat)
-
- * Pseudo filesystems*
- /proc file system support (CONFIG_PROC_FS)
------------------------------
12.3. Notes
It may be in your interest to consult Migrating to Linux Kernel
2.6<http://thomer.com/linux/migrate-to-2.6.html>,
but it is not necessary to follow steps that cannot be followed.
------------------------------
12.4. Hotplugging and Naming
In Section 6.2<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#scsidev>the
situation of two USB devices plugged in at the same time was
discussed.
The difficulty is that it becomes hard for the user to distinguish the two
devices. Progress recently made in the Linux Hotplug Project
<http://sourceforge.net/search/> (search for hotplug) and implemented in the
2.6-series of kernels, has made it possible to address this problem
efficiently. For implementation some utilities are needed:
- sysfs -- compiled by default into Linux-2.6.x
- sysfsutils-0.4.0 or
later<http://linux-diag.sourceforge.net/Sysfsutils.html>
- hotplug-2004_01_05 or
later<http://sourceforge.net/projects/linux-hotplug>
- udev-016 or later<http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/utils/kernel/hotplug>
------------------------------
12.4.1. Installation
*The sysfs filesystem. *
The *sysfs* filesystem is intrinsic to the Linux-2.6 kernel series. It is
used by *udev* and *sysfstools* to obtain information about kernel objects
(devices, etc.), their attributes and mutual linkages. Activation is
according to the following procedure:
# *cd* /
# *mkdir* sys
# *mount* -t sysfs none /sys
If you do * ls -F /sys*, a whole directory structure with entries like *
block/*, *bus/*, ... will be shown. You were successful. The mounting should
now be made permanent by adding the following line to /etc/fstab:
none /sys sysfs defaults 0 0
*Sysfsutils. *
This is installed in one of the usual ways without having to make special
configuration options. Instructions in the README file are very clear. You
should, however, first make sure that the entry /usr/local/lib is entered in
/etc/ld.so.conf so that the libsysfs.so libraries will be recognisable by
the system. After installation, check that the utilities
/usr/local/bin/lsbus and /usr/local/bin/systool have been installed. Also
check that the libraries mentioned above have been properly linked in
(*ldconfig
-p | grep libsysfs*).
*Hotplug. *
Next install the hotplug scripts. The first thing to do is to check that
hotplugging will work on your system. Do: * less /proc/sys/kernel/hotplug*.
The result should be /sbin/hotplug. If it is not so, you should add the line
echo "/sbin/hotplug" > /proc/sys/kernel/hotplug to an appropriate
initialization script, e.g. /etc/rc.d/rc.local. This command could also be
given (as root) before checking that everything works. Installation is
extremely simple. Do: # * make install*. Check afterwards that the script
/sbin/hotplug exists.
*Udev. *
This is the last installation. Study the README file and follow the
instructions necessary to be able to run *make USE_KLIBC=true*. If you have
compiled the Linux-2.6.x kernel, this should not be too difficult. A quick
check would be to find out if /sbin/udev and /sbin/udevinfo exist. There are
other occurences as well, a very important one being /etc/udev/udev.rules.
If you have a working setup for memory sticks (as described above) and a
memory stick plugged in you could try *ls /udev*, you should see the device
(sda, sda1, ...). If it is there, unplug the device and list again. It
should be gone!
------------------------------
12.4.2. Naming memory sticks
With the *udev* utility in place, it is possible to identify a memory stick
on the basis of some built-in attribute. One that works, is the
*vendor*identity. To find this for an attached device, do
*systool -vb scsi | grep vendor*. This should give a list of attached SCSI
devices (remember that your memory stick poses as a SCSI device
Section 6.2<http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#scsidev>).
Let us suppose that you have two memory sticks plugged in at the same time
and found (as I did) two vendor Id's, namely "UFD" and "STORAGE". Then add
to the file /etc/udev/udev.rules the following lines (at the top if you
like):
## Flash Memory 1
BUS="scsi", SYSFS_vendor="UFD*", NAME="namib%n"
## Flash Memory 2
BUS="scsi", SYSFS_vendor="STORAGE*", NAME="kalahari%n"
The vendor-identities may have trailing blank spaces, and therefore the
wildcard asterisks have a purpose. Do not ignore them. Remove and replace
the memory sticks, then do *ls /udev*. Instead of the impersonal sda, sda1,
etc. there should now be kalahari, kalahari1, namib and namib1. The devices
have been named according to the "vendor" information in them. Thus we can
identify the device, no matter where it was mapped. All that remains to be
done is to creat appropriate mount points like /mnt/namib and kalahari and
make entries like
/udev/namib1 /mnt/namib vfat,ext2 user,noauto,rw 0 0
/udev/kalahari1 /mnt/kalahari vfat,ext2 user,noauto,rw
0 0
in /etc/fstab to enable mounting from other places.
This is great fun ... and remember, there are other deserts on the planet.
------------------------------
13. Formalities13.1. Copyright Information
This document is copyrighted (c) 2003 Niko Sauer and is distributed under
the terms of the Linux Documentation Project (LDP) license, stated below.
Unless otherwise stated, Linux HOWTO documents are copyrighted by their
respective authors. Linux HOWTO documents may be reproduced and distributed
in whole or in part, in any medium physical or electronic, as long as this
copyright notice is retained on all copies. Commercial redistribution is
allowed and encouraged; however, the author would like to be notified of any
such distributions.
All translations, derivative works, or aggregate works incorporating any
Linux HOWTO documents must be covered under this copyright notice. That is,
you may not produce a derivative work from a HOWTO and impose additional
restrictions on its distribution. Exceptions to these rules may be granted
under certain conditions; please contact the Linux HOWTO coordinator at the
address given below.
In short, we wish to promote dissemination of this information through as
many channels as possible. However, we do wish to retain copyright on the
HOWTO documents, and would like to be notified of any plans to redistribute
the HOWTOs.
If you have any questions, please contact <nikos at friedrichs.up.ac.za >
------------------------------
13.2. Disclaimer
No liability for the contents of this documents can be accepted. Use the
concepts, examples and other content at your own risk. As this is a new
document, there may be errors and inaccuracies, that may of course be
damaging to your system. Proceed with caution, and although this is highly
unlikely, the author do not take any responsibility for that.
All copyrights are held by their by their respective owners, unless
specifically noted otherwise. Use of a term in this document should not be
regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark.
Naming of particular products or brands should not be seen as endorsements.
You are strongly recommended to take a backup of your system before major
installation and backups at regular intervals.
------------------------------
13.3. Credits
I wish to express my deep gratitude towards my sons Paul and Philip who in
1995 persuaded me to move to Linux. Philip gave me profound advice and
insights which made this project a pleasant learning experience.
Emma Jane Hogbin, in her review, raised a number of important questions
which served to improve this document immensely. My sincerest thanks to her.
------------------------------
13.4. Feedback
Users of this document are most welcome to email me with suggestions on the
improvement of the presentation and possible additions to the scope of it.
Notes [1] <http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/html_single/Flash-Memory-HOWTO/#AEN104>
This document leans heavily on the texts marked with an asterisk
On 9/3/06, Fouad Riaz Bajwa <bajwa at fossfp.org> wrote:
>
> Dear Waqas and Ubuntu Users,
> I would like you all to come in and join the international Ubuntu-Users
> mailing list so that you have round the clock technical user support. The
> list is here https://lists.ubuntu.com/mailman/listinfo/ubuntu-users. Also
> we
> need to track the users of Ubuntu-Linux in Pakistan so that we can come up
> with an estimated figure of how many users are actually using Ubuntu!
>
> Regards
> -----------------------
> Fouad Riaz Bajwa
>
> -----Original Message-----
> From: general-bounces at linuxpakistan.net
> [mailto:general-bounces at linuxpakistan.net] On Behalf Of Waqas Toor
> Sent: Monday, September 04, 2006 1:19 AM
> To: Linux Pakistan; ubuntu-pk at lists.ubuntu.com
> Subject: [LinuxPakistan] help needed with usb flash (ubuntu)
>
> hi linuxers,
>
> i need some help to load usb flash drive ... i mean mount the drive
> now there is not sda in drapper drake ubuntu
> no /dev/sda etc
> now in mtab there is an entry that shows like this
> procbususb /proc/bus/usb/....
> i dont know what that means ... if i unmount the procbususb and mount
> it to some other folder i cant get the contents either ... i get files
> of 001 and 002
> now tell me how to mount my usb flash drive in drapper drake ???
>
> i've also tried mountusbfs for example
> /etc/init.d/mountusbfs start
> bus what happens i dont know
>
> so simple how to mount ha usb flash drive in ubuntu drapper drake
>
>
> --
> Waqas
>
> Linux *is* user friendly. It's just selective about who its friends are.
> If Windows is the solution, can we please have the problem back?
>
> http://waqastoor.weblog.pk
> (Registered Linux user #424056)
> ref link http://counter.li.org/
>
> _______________________________________________
> General mailing list
> General at linuxpakistan.net
> http://mail.linuxpakistan.net/mailman/listinfo/general_linuxpakistan.net
>
> Hosting Provided by Inspedium <http://www.inspedium.com/>
>
>
> --
> No virus found in this incoming message.
> Checked by AVG Free Edition.
> Version: 7.1.405 / Virus Database: 268.11.7/436 - Release Date: 9/1/2006
>
>
> --
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>
>
>
> --
> Ubuntu-pk mailing list
> Ubuntu-pk at lists.ubuntu.com
> https://lists.ubuntu.com/mailman/listinfo/ubuntu-pk
>
--
Khawar Nehal
CEO
Applied Technology Research Center (ATRC)
C-55 Block A KDA Officers, Karachi 75260, Pakistan
Voice : 92-21-4980523 Mobile :
Karachi 92-333-2486216
Islamabad : 0334-5339171
Email : khawar.nehal at atrc.net.pk
Fax : 1-734-298-6555 Web : atrc.net.pk
Gmail account : atrc.support at gmail.com
Registrar
Preston Institute of Management, Science and Technology (PIMSAT)
177/2 IEP Building, Opposite Regent Plaza (Formerly Taj Mahal Hotel)
Shahrah-a-Faisal, Karachi, Pakistan
Voice : 92-21-2789888 to 90 Fax : 92-21-2789891
Email : khawar at pimsat-khi.edu.pk
General Inquiries : info at pimsat-khi.edu.pk
Web : pimsat-khi.edu.pk
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